GB/T 6462-2005/ISO 1463:2003

Metallic and Oxide Coatings – Measurement of Coating Thickness – Microscopical Method

Equivalent to ISO 1463:2003 (IDT)

Issued: 2005-06-23 | Implemented: 2005-12-01

Issued by: General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine of the People’s Republic of China
Standardization Administration of China

Foreword

This standard is identically adopted from ISO 1463:2003 “Metallic and oxide coatings – Measurement of coating thickness – Microscopical method” (English version).

This standard is an equivalent translation of ISO 1463:2003. For ease of use, the following editorial modifications have been made:

a) Replace “this international standard” with “this standard”;
b) Replace “that country” with “country”;
c) Replace comma “,” as decimal separator with decimal point “.”;
d) Delete the foreword of the international standard.

This standard replaces GB/T 6462-1986 “Microscopical method for measuring cross-sectional thickness of metallic and oxide coatings”. Main changes compared to GB/T 6462-1986:

Standard title changed to “Metallic and oxide coatings – Measurement of coating thickness – Microscopical method”;
Scope of application added (Chapter 1);
Normative references added (Chapter 2);
Definition of local thickness added (Chapter 3);
Appendix B added.

1 Scope

This standard specifies a method for measuring the local thickness of metallic coatings, oxide film layers, and enamel or glass porcelain coatings using an optical microscope to examine cross-sections.

Warning: The use of this standard may involve hazardous materials, operations, and equipment. This standard does not address any health hazards or safety issues during use. Before using this standard, users are responsible for establishing appropriate health and safety regulations based on national or local requirements and taking corresponding measures.

2 Normative References

The following documents contain provisions that, through reference in this standard, constitute provisions of this standard. For dated references, subsequent amendments (excluding corrigenda) or revisions do not apply. However, parties are encouraged to investigate whether the latest versions of these documents can be used.

GB/T 12334 – Metallic and other non-organic coatings – Notes on the measurement of thickness (idt ISO 2064)

3 Terms and Definitions

The terms and definitions from GB/T 12334 and the following apply to this standard:

3.1 Local thickness – The average value of a specified number of thickness measurements made within a reference area.

4 Principle

A test piece is cut from the component to be tested, mounted, and the cross-section is ground, polished, and etched using appropriate techniques. The thickness of the coating cross-section is measured using a calibrated scale.

Note: Experienced metallographers are familiar with these techniques. For inexperienced operators, guidance is provided in Chapter 5 and Appendix A.

5 Factors Affecting Measurement Uncertainty

5.1 Surface roughness – If the coating or substrate surface is rough, one or both interface lines in contact with the coating cross-section will be irregular, preventing precise measurement.

5.2 Cross-section tilt – If the cross-section is not perpendicular to the coating plane, the measured thickness will be greater than the true thickness. For example: a 1° deviation from perpendicularity produces a 1.5% error.

5.3 Coating deformation – Excessive temperature and pressure during mounting and cross-section preparation can cause harmful deformation in soft or low-melting-point coatings.

5.4 Coating edge chamfering – If the cross-section edge is chamfered, microscope measurement will not give the true thickness.

5.5 Additional plating – During cross-section preparation, an additional coating is often applied to protect the coating edge and avoid measurement errors.

5.6 Etching – Proper etching produces a fine, clear black line at the interface between two metals; excessive etching will blur the interface line or widen it, causing measurement errors.

5.7 Smearing – Improper polishing or additional plating of soft metal can cause one metal to smear over another, blurring the interface between coating and substrate.

5.8 Magnification – For any given coating thickness, measurement error generally increases with decreasing magnification. The microscope field of view should be 1.5 to 3 times the coating thickness.

5.9 Stage micrometer calibration – Errors in stage micrometer calibration will reflect in specimen measurements.

5.10 Micrometer eyepiece calibration – Linear micrometer eyepieces provide the most satisfactory thickness measurement method. The eyepiece should be calibrated by the operator performing the measurements.

5.11 Alignment – Backlash during micrometer eyepiece movement can also cause measurement errors.

5.12 Magnification uniformity – Non-uniform magnification across the field of view introduces errors.

5.13 Lens quality – Unclear images produce measurement uncertainty; high-quality lenses must be used.

5.14 Eyepiece orientation – Ensure the eyepiece reticle is perpendicular to the coating cross-section interface line during alignment.

5.15 Tube length – Changes in tube length cause magnification changes; avoid tube length changes between calibration and measurement.

6 Cross-Section Preparation

Preparation, mounting, grinding, polishing, and etching of specimens require:

a) Cross-section perpendicular to the coating;
b) Cross-section surface flat, with the entire image width in focus at the magnification used for measurement;
c) Deformed material from cutting and cross-section preparation must be removed;
d) The interface line on the coating cross-section must be clearly determinable by visual contrast or by a fine, easily distinguishable line.

7 Measurement

7.1 Proper attention should be paid to the various factors listed in Chapter 5 and Appendix A.

7.2 Calibrate the microscope and its measuring device using a verified or calibrated stage micrometer.

7.3 When measuring the width of the coating cross-section image, take at least five measurements along the length of the microsection.

8 Measurement Uncertainty

The microscope and its accessories, the methods of use and calibration, and the cross-section preparation methods should all be selected so that the measurement uncertainty is within the larger of 1 μm or 10% of the true thickness. This method can achieve an absolute measurement uncertainty of 0.8 μm; when the thickness is greater than 25 μm, a reasonable measurement uncertainty should be 5% or less.

Under good conditions, with careful specimen preparation and appropriate instruments, this method can achieve a measurement uncertainty of 0.4 μm.

9 Test Report

The test report should include:

a) The number of this standard, i.e., GB/T 6462-2005;
b) Characteristics of the test specimen;
c) Description of measurement results:
- 1) Location of the cross-section on the test specimen;
- 2) Thickness at each measurement point, in micrometers (or millimeters if greater than 1 mm);
- 3) Local thickness, i.e., the arithmetic mean of thickness measurements.
d) Any deviations from the designated process;
e) Any abnormal features observed during testing;
f) Date of testing.

Appendix A (Informative) – Guidelines on Cross-Section Preparation and Measurement

A.1 Introduction – Specimen preparation and coating thickness measurement largely depend on individual skill, and applicable techniques are diverse. Specifying a single technique is unreasonable, and including all applicable techniques is impractical. The techniques described in this appendix serve as guidelines for inexperienced metallographers.

A.2 Mounting – To prevent edge chamfering of the coating cross-section, support the outer surface of the coating so that no gap remains between the coating and the support. A metal with hardness similar to the coating is often plated on the specimen as an additional coating, with a thickness of at least 10 μm.

A.3 Grinding and Polishing – Maintaining the mounted cross-section perpendicular to the coating is critical. Plastic mounting with metal shims at the outer edge, periodic rotation of grinding direction (90°), and minimizing grinding time and pressure all help maintain cross-section perpendicularity.

A.4 Etching – Etching is usually appropriate to enhance contrast between metal layers, remove smearing traces, and reveal a clear fine line at the coating interface.

A.5 Measurement – Measuring instruments generally use linear micrometers or micrometer eyepieces, with the latter having lower accuracy.

Appendix B (Informative) – Measurement of Cross-Section Tilt and Serrated Structure Coatings

B.1 Cross-section tilt – If the specimen orientation deviates from the perpendicular plane (see Figure B.1), the measurement value will be higher.

Coating thickness d can be calculated by formula (B.1):

d = d’ × cos α

Where: d = coating thickness when α=0; α = deviation angle of cross-section from perpendicular to coating surface (in degrees); d’ = measured coating thickness when α≠0.

B.2 Measurement of serrated structure coatings – This method can be used to measure the local thickness of serrated structure coatings, such as boron nitride coatings produced by thermochemical processes.

B.3 Empirical values of measurement standard deviation using light microscopes – Under repeatable conditions, the standard deviation (σ) is 0.3 μm. Under comparative conditions, the standard deviation is 0.8 μm.

Appendix C (Informative) – Typical Etchants Used at Room Temperature

No.	Etchant	Application
1	Nitric acid (ρ=1.42 g/mL): 5 mL; Ethanol (95% vol): 95 mL	For nickel and chromium coatings on steel; etches steel. Warning: This mixture is unstable and may explode, especially when heated.
2	Ferric chloride hexahydrate (10 g); Hydrochloric acid (ρ=1.16 g/mL): 2 mL; Ethanol (95% vol): 98 mL	For gold, lead, silver, nickel and copper coatings on steel, copper and copper alloys; etches steel, copper and copper alloys.
3	Nitric acid (ρ=1.42 g/mL): 50 mL; Glacial acetic acid (ρ=1.16 g/mL): 50 mL	For single layer thickness measurement of multi-layer nickel coatings on steel and copper.
4	Ammonium persulfate: 10 g; Ammonium hydroxide (ρ=0.88 g/mL): 2 mL; Distilled water: 93 mL	For tin and tin alloy coatings on copper and copper alloys; etches copper and copper alloys.
5	Nitric acid (ρ=1.42 g/mL): 5 mL; Hydrofluoric acid (ρ=1.14 g/mL): 2 mL; Distilled water: 93 mL	For nickel and copper coatings on aluminum and aluminum alloys; etches aluminum and aluminum alloys.
6	Chromic anhydride: 20 g; Sodium sulfate: 1.5 g; Distilled water: 100 mL	For nickel and copper coatings on zinc alloys; also suitable for zinc and cadmium coatings on steel.
7	Hydrofluoric acid (ρ=1.14 g/mL): 2 mL; Distilled water: 98 mL	For anodized aluminum alloys; etches aluminum and aluminum alloys.

References

BARGHOORN, H., Vergleichende Untersuchungen von Schichtdicke-Messverfahren, Metalloberflache, 1955, 7, pp. 8-11.
Ray, G. P., Thickness testing of electroplated and related coatings, Electrochemical Publications Ltd., Asahi House, 10 Church Road, Port Erin, U. K., 1993, ISBN 0 901150 27 4.

Original Standard Document

GB/T 6462-2005/ISO 1463:2003 – Metallic and Oxide Coatings – Measurement of Coating Thickness – Microscopical Method (Chinese National Standard)

Download Original PDF (GB/T 6462-2005)

GB 1298-1986 Carbon Tool Steels – Technical Requirements

This standard supersedes GB 1298-77. Published by the National Bureau of Standards on June 7, 1986. Effective May 1, 1987.

Issued by the Ministry of Metallurgical Industry, People’s Republic of China. Drafted by Chongqing Special Steel Works, Dalian Steel Works, and Information & Standards Research Institute of the Ministry of Metallurgical Industry.

Scope

This standard applies to hot-rolled, forged, cold-drawn, and bright carbon tool steel bars. The chemical composition requirements also apply to ingots, blooms, and their finished products.

1. Classification

Steel products are classified according to the processing method into hot pressure working steels, cold pressure working steels, and cutting machining steels. The intended processing method shall be specified in the purchase contract.

2. Dimensions, Shapes and Tolerances

2.1 Hot-rolled steel bars: Dimensions, tolerances, and shapes shall comply with Grade 2 in GB 702-86.

2.2 Forged steel bars: Dimensions, tolerances, and shapes shall comply with GB 908-87.

2.3 Cold-drawn and bright steel bars: Dimensions, tolerances, and shapes shall comply with Grade 11 of GB 905-82, GB 906-82, GB 907-82, and GB 3207-82.

2.4 Short lengths: Short lengths shall not be delivered as mixed batches.

3. Technical Requirements

3.1 Grades and Chemical Composition (%)

No.	Grade	C	Si	Mn	S	P
1	T7	0.65~0.74	0.35	0.25~0.40	0.030	0.035
2	T8	0.75~0.84	0.35	0.25~0.40	0.030	0.035
3	T8Mn	0.80~0.90	0.35	0.40~0.60	0.030	0.035
4	T9	0.85~0.94	0.35	0.25~0.40	0.030	0.035
5	T10	0.95~1.04	0.35	0.25~0.40	0.030	0.035
6	T11	1.05~1.14	0.35	0.25~0.40	0.030	0.035
7	T12	1.15~1.24	0.35	0.25~0.40	0.030	0.035
8	T13	1.25~1.35	0.35	0.25~0.40	0.030	0.035

Si, Mn values are maximum unless shown as range. S, P are maximum limits.

3.1.1 Special Requirements

Premium quality (indicated by “A” suffix): Sulfur ≤ 0.020%, Phosphorus ≤ 0.030%
Open hearth melted steel: Sulfur ≤ 0.035% for quality steel; ≤ 0.025% for premium quality
Residual elements: Cr ≤ 0.25%, Ni ≤ 0.20%, Cu ≤ 0.30%
For lead bath quenched wire: Cr ≤ 0.10%, Ni ≤ 0.12%, Cu ≤ 0.20%, total ≤ 0.40%
For hardenability testing: small amounts of alloying elements may be added upon agreement

3.2 Delivery Condition

Steel products shall be delivered in annealed condition. Upon agreement, may also be delivered in non-annealed condition.

3.3 Hardness

Grade	Annealed HB	Indentation mm	Quenching Temp (C)	Quenched HRC
T7	–	–	760-780 water	–
T8	187 max	4.40 min	760-780 water	62 min
T8Mn	187 max	4.40 min	760-780 water	62 min
T9	192 max	4.35 min	760-780 water	62 min
T10	207 max	4.20 min	760-780 water	62 min
T12	207 max	4.20 min	760-780 water	62 min
T13	–	–	760-780 water	62 min

3.4 Fracture and Acid-Etched Macrostructure

Annealed steel bars with cross-section ≤ 100mm shall be examined for fracture. The fracture surface shall be uniform with fine grain. No visible residual shrinkage, inclusions, lamination, cracks, blowholes, white spots, or graphite carbon.
Acid-etched macrostructure may be inspected instead of fracture test upon request. No visible residual shrinkage, inclusions, cracks, blowholes, or white spots on transverse sections.

3.5 Microstructure

Pearlite structure (500x): T7, T8, T8Mn, T9: Grade 3 or better. T10, T11, T12, T13: Grade 4 or better.

Pro-eutectoid carbide network (500x): Cross-section ≤ 60mm: Grade 2 max. >60~100mm: Grade 3 max. >100mm: by agreement.

T7, T8, and hot pressure working steels are exempt from pro-eutectoid carbide network inspection.

3.5.3 Decarburization Depth

Hot-rolled and forged steel: One-side total decarb depth ≤ (0.25 + 1.5% x D) mm, where D is nominal cross-section size (mm)
Cold-drawn steel ≤ 16mm: ≤ 1.5% x D; > 16mm: ≤ 1.3% x D
Cold-drawn steel for high-frequency quenching: ≤ 1.0% x D
Bright steel: No decarburization permitted

3.6 Hardenability

Upon purchaser’s request and mutual agreement, hardenability may be tested. Required grade or case depth to be specified in contract.

3.7 Surface Quality

Hot-rolled and forged: No visible cracks, laps, scabs, or inclusions. Defect removal depth: ≤80mm = half tolerance; 80-140mm = tolerance; >140mm = 4% of cross-section.
Cutting machining: Local defects allowed up to half tolerance for ≤100mm, full tolerance for >100mm.
Cold-drawn: Clean, smooth surface. Minor defects within half tolerance permitted.
Bright steel: No decarburization. Comply with YB 247-64.

4. Test Methods

No.	Inspection	Sampling	Method
1	Chemical composition	Per heat	GB 222-84 / GB 223
2	Annealed hardness	3 per batch	GB 231-84
3	Quenched hardness	Per batch	GB 230-83
4	Fracture	Per batch	GB 1814-79
5	Acid-etched macro	2 per batch	GB 226-76
6	Pearlite	Per batch	YB 28-59
7	Carbide network	Per batch	YB 28-59
8	Decarburization	3 per batch	GB 224-78
9	Hardenability	Per agreement	GB 227-63
10	Dimensions	Each bar	Micrometer/caliper
11	Surface	Each bar	Visual

5. Inspection Rules

Batches consist of same heat, same size, same processing method, same annealing furnace lot. Retest rules comply with GB 2101-80.

6. Packaging, Marking and Quality Certificate

Shall comply with GB 2101-80.

Original PDF Document

Download Original PDF – GB 1298-1986 碳素工具钢技术条件

金属材料火花图谱 — Spark Atlas of Metal Materials

Spark Atlas of Metal Materials — A Comprehensive Reference Guide

作者 / Authors: 周南兴 (Zhou Nanxing) · 陈同心 (Chen Tongxin) · 陈国忠 (Chen Guozhong)
出版社 / Publisher: 江苏科学技术出版社 (Jiangsu Science and Technology Press)
出版日期 / Publication Date: 1985年7月 (July 1985)
页数 / Pages: 251 pages · 印数 / Print Run: 1–2,780 · 定价 / Price: ¥4.90

前言 / Preface

火花分析法，是鉴定金属材料牌号和分析其化学成分的一种简便、快速、有效的方法。近数十年来，各国专家与科学家对它给予了高度的评价，肯定其在实际生产和科研工作中所起的巨大作用。

Spark Analysis Method is a simple, rapid, and effective technique for identifying metal material grades and analyzing their chemical composition. In recent decades, experts and scientists worldwide have highly evaluated this method, confirming its significant role in practical production and scientific research.

笔者曾在1957年编著《钢的现场火花检查法》一书，受到各工矿企业从事金属材料的工人、工程技术人员的普遍欢迎。但由于该书篇幅小，仅限于部分钢号的火花图，因此远远不能满足广大读者的需要。

The author previously published On-site Spark Inspection Method for Steel in 1957, which was widely welcomed by workers and engineering technicians. However, due to its limited scope covering only some steel grades, it could not meet the growing needs of readers.

本次由江苏省无线电科学研究所陈同心、无锡柴油机厂陈国忠和笔者三人，花了十多年的时间，系统总结了几十年来对金属材料的火花理论研究和实际工作经验，共同著作《金属材料火花图谱》一书。

This atlas is the collaborative work of Chen Tongxin (Jiangsu Institute of Radio Science), Chen Guozhong (Wuxi Diesel Engine Factory), and the author, representing over a decade of systematic research and practical experience in spark analysis of metal materials.

内容介绍 / Overview

图谱共分三个部分，按照中华人民共和国冶金工业部部颁标准，共列出427种金属材料的火花图谱，并附有较详细的文字说明。

The atlas is organized into three parts, covering 427 types of metal materials according to the standards of the Ministry of Metallurgical Industry of the PRC, with detailed textual descriptions.

第一部分 / Part 1: 火花图的基础知识 — 详细介绍金属元素在火花图中的基本特征。
Spark Pattern Basics
第二部分 / Part 2: 钢的火花图 — 各类钢材的火花辨识图谱。
Spark Patterns of Steels
第三部分 / Part 3: 铁和有色金属火花图 — 铸铁与有色金属的火花图谱。
Spark Patterns of Iron and Non-ferrous Metals

目录 / Table of Contents

第一部分火花图基础知识 / Part 1: Spark Pattern Basics

各种元素对火花的影响 / Effect of Various Elements
- 助长爆裂火花元素 (Promoting burst sparks): C, Cr, Mn, V, B
- 抑制爆裂火花元素 (Suppressing burst sparks): Ni, Co, Si, Al, Cu
火花图的流线 / Flow Lines
- 平直流线 / Straight flow lines
- 断续流线 / Interrupted flow lines
- 波浪流线 / Wavy flow lines
- 螺旋流线 / Spiral flow lines
- 不规律流线 / Irregular flow lines
火花图的节点 / Nodes
火花图的芒线 / Awn Lines
火花图的花粉 / Pollen
火花图的蕗花 / Burst Flowers
火花图的爆花 / Explosion Flowers

第二部分钢的火花图 / Part 2: Spark Patterns of Steels

普通碳素钢 / Ordinary Carbon Steels (甲类钢, 乙类钢, 特类钢)
优质碳素结构钢 / Quality Carbon Structural Steels
碳素工具钢 / Carbon Tool Steels
合金结构钢 / Alloy Structural Steels
合金工具钢 / Alloy Tool Steels
弹簧钢 / Spring Steels
轴承钢 / Bearing Steels
不锈耐酸钢 / Stainless and Acid-resistant Steels
耐热不起皮钢 / Heat-resistant Scaling-resistant Steels
高速工具钢 / High-speed Tool Steels
低合金高强度钢 / Low-alloy High-strength Steels
易切削结构钢 / Free-cutting Structural Steels
锅炉钢 / Boiler Steels
合金结构薄钢板 / Alloy Structural Thin Steel Sheets
热轧中空钢 / Hot-rolled Hollow Steels
焊条用钢丝 / Welding Wire Steels
电工用硅钢、纯铁 / Electrical Silicon Steels & Pure Iron

第三部分铁与有色金属的火花图 / Part 3: Iron & Non-ferrous Metals

生铁 / Pig Iron (炼钢用生铁, 铸造用生铁)
灰口铸铁 / Gray Cast Iron (普通铸铁, 耐磨铸铁, 球墨铸铁)
碳素铸钢 / Carbon Cast Steel
渗碳、脱碳、渗氮、铁合金 / Carburized, Decarburized, Nitrided & Ferroalloys
有色金属 / Non-ferrous Metals

附录 / Appendix

火花分析专用砂轮机及操作注意事项 / Dedicated Grinding Machine & Operating Precautions

火花分析法概述 / Overview of Spark Analysis

当今鉴别和分析金属材料的方法大体可分为化学分析法和物理分析法两大类。化学分析法虽然精确，但必须具备高精度的分析仪器，设备要求高、投资大，并且程序多、时间长。

物理分析法包括音划法、目鉴法、宏观法、微观法、硬度法、波段法、火花法、磁场法等。最常见的是火花法，其特点是设备简单，操作方便，对金属牌号及其化学成分的鉴定分析速度快，准确性强。

Physical analysis methods include scratch, visual inspection, macroscopic, microscopic, hardness, spectrographic, spark, and magnetic methods. The spark method is most common: simple equipment, convenient operation, fast identification speed and high accuracy.

火花图的应用范围 / Applications:

炉前分析: 在几秒钟内分析出炉内钢水是否符合要求。
Furnace-side analysis: rapid analysis within seconds.
热处理前核对: 正确掌握加热温度和时间，防止造成废品。
Pre-heat treatment: verify grade to control heating.
渗碳/渗氮检验: 判断渗层深度和均匀性。
Case depth inspection.
脱碳检测: 观察脱碳深度，分析合金成分。
Decarburization detection.
防混钢: 杜绝金属材料仓库混钢事故的最简单有效方法。
Prevent steel mix-up accidents.
辅助验证: 化学分析和物理分析前的辅助验证手段。
Supplementary verification.

各种元素对火花的影响 / Effects of Elements

助长爆裂火花元素 / Elements Promoting Burst Sparks

助长爆裂火花的元素有：C（碳）、Cr（铬）、Mn（锰）、V（钒）、B（硼）等。这些元素的微粒在砂轮磨削产生高热后，生成一次爆花火花，随即形成金属氧化物并放出大量热能，导致发生二次、三次甚至多次爆裂火花。

C, Cr, Mn, V, B, etc. Their particles generate primary burst flowers under grinding heat, then form metal oxides releasing large energy, causing secondary, tertiary or multiple bursts.

抑制爆裂火花元素 / Elements Suppressing Burst Sparks

抑制爆裂火花的主要元素有：Ni（镍）、Co（钴）、Si（硅）、Al（铝）、Cu（铜）等。这些元素使碳化物分解需要额外热能，从而抑制或熄灭碳元素的爆裂火花特征。

Ni, Co, Si, Al, Cu, etc. These elements require additional heat energy for carbide decomposition, suppressing or extinguishing burst spark characteristics of carbon.

术语 / Terminology

爆裂强度 / Burst Intensity — 节点形态大小、数量变化、光度亮弱
爆花花势 / Burst Momentum — 流线上爆裂的形态大小与数量
色泽 / Color & Luster — 元素成分影响火光明暗深浅
卷轮花 / Swirl Pattern — 环绕砂轮周围的零星火花

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📄 金属材料火花图谱 / Spark Atlas of Metal Materials

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机械工程材料测试手册 – 物理金相卷

Mechanical Engineering Material Testing Handbook – Physical Metallography Volume

总主编 / Chief Editor: 桂立丰 (Gui Lifeng)
卷主编 / Volume Editor: 唐汝钧 (Tang Rujun)

内容简介 / Overview

本手册是机械工程材料物理金相测试领域的权威参考书，涵盖了金属材料微观组织分析、金相试样制备、显微组织评定等核心内容。

This handbook is an authoritative reference for physical metallography testing in mechanical engineering, covering microstructure analysis, metallographic sample preparation, and microstructural evaluation of metallic materials.

主要内容 / Main Content

金相试样制备技术 — 切割、镶嵌、研磨、抛光、腐蚀 / Metallographic sample preparation: cutting, mounting, grinding, polishing, etching
显微组织分析方法 — 光学显微镜、扫描电镜、透射电镜 / Microstructure analysis: optical microscopy, SEM, TEM
晶粒度测定与评级 — 晶粒大小测定、比较法、截点法 / Grain size determination and rating methods
夹杂物评定与分类 — 非金属夹杂物的检测与评级 / Inclusion assessment and classification
相分析与组织鉴别 — 金属相结构分析与识别 / Phase identification and microstructural analysis
断口分析 — 断裂机理与断口形貌分析 / Fractography and fracture mechanism analysis
表面处理与涂层检测 — 镀层、渗层、涂层的质量评定 / Surface treatment and coating evaluation
相关标准 — GB、ISO、ASTM等国内外测试标准汇总 / Applicable standards: GB, ISO, ASTM

适用范围 / Target Audience

适用于材料工程师、冶金工程师、质量检测人员、机械制造行业技术人员以及材料科学专业的师生。

Designed for materials engineers, metallurgists, quality control personnel, manufacturing technicians, and students in materials science.

📄 PDF 下载 / PDF Download

原版PDF文件已嵌入下方，也可点击链接下载：
The original PDF is embedded below. You can also download it using the link:

⬇️ 下载PDF / Download PDF (约12MB, 1128页)